1. Neural intelligence. This refers to the efficiency and precision of one's neurological system.
2. Experiential intelligence. This refers to one's accumulated knowledge and experience in different areas. It can be thought of as the accumulation of all of one's expertises.
3. Reflective intelligence. This refers to one's broad-based strategies for attacking problems, for learning, and for approaching intellectually challenging tasks. It includes attitudes that support persistence, systemization, and imagination. It includes self-monitoring and self-management.
In 1997, Dunlap defined four separate instructional methodologies that nurture learning skills for lifelong learning. These four methodologies are: problem-based learning (PBL)(Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980), intentional learning (Palincsar, 1990), reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown, 1984), and cognitive apprenticeship(Collins, Brown & Holum, 1991).
Learning Power
The concept of learning power emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, in the writings of Guy Claxton. Learning Power, seen as a form of intelligence, is not primarily intellectual, but related to personality and styles, practical, consisting of interwoven capacities, seen as capable of development and refinement, and often referred to as dispositions(David Perkins, 1995), Habits of mind (Art Costa, 2000) or 'capacities' (Guy Claxton, 2002), instead of skills.
According to Smith and Spurling (1999), “lifelong learning relates to learning that takes place throughout the lifespan. It includes the main types of learning, informal and formal education, as well as self-directed learning. Lifelong learning is continuous and is maintained throughout life. The process of learning in this capacity is intentional and is expressed through a strategy that may be appraised over time.”
Different researchers have defined and discussed learning power and the capacities necessary. American researchers such as Costa, Perkins, and Ritchhart focused more on formal, intellectual, school learning, whereas British researchers such as Claxton, Ruth Deakin-Crick, and Bill Lucas define learning in both informal and formal settings.
In Building Learning Power: Helping Young People Become Better Learners, Guy Claxton defines a framework to build learning power that lists seventeen different learning capacities that are grouped into the four clusters of resilience, resourcefulness, reciprocity, and reflection. (Claxton, 2002)
Learning to Learn
Ruth Deakin Crick visited Carnegie in late 2009 to introduce the Effective Lifelong Learning Inventory (ELLI), a framework for assessing the seven dimensions of student learning: changing and learning, meaning making, critical curiosity, creativity, learning relationships, strategic awareness, and resilience.
Video interview
The characteristics and components of effective lifelong learning are interdisciplinary in scope. Learning is a process carried out by individuals and groups (Crick, Broadfoot, & Claxton, 2004), where the learned material is considered a knowledge or skill, and can also be described as an ability to do something new, or as a new understanding.
The process of learning may take place beneath the “threshold of introspection” in the learner’s mind, or the learner may be fully aware of the learning process (Crick, Broadfoot, & Claxton, 2004).
The following variables that impact a learner's capacity and motivation to learn were proposed by Crick, Broadfoot, and Claxton in 2004:
self-esteem, locus of control, learning dispositions, goal orientations, learning styles, intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation, socio-historical environment of the learner.
(Crick, Broadfoot & Claxton, 2004)
Crick, Broadfoot, and Claxton developed ELLI, the Evaluating Lifelong Learning Inventory instrument to identify elements of capacity for lifelong learning, and assess lifelong learning. ELLI identifies dimensions of learning as self-efficacy and commitment, growth (an learner's belief that s/he can get better at learning over time), critical curiosity, meaning making, fragility and dependence vs. resilience and robustness, creativity, strategic awareness
Bibliography
Barrows, H. S. & Tamblyn, R. N. (1980). Problem-based learning. New York: Springer Publishing Company.
Claxton, Guy, Wise Up: The Challenge of Lifelong Learning, Bloomsbury: London and New York, 1999.
Claxton, Guy. Building Learning Power: Helping Young People Become Better Learners. Bristol: TLO, 2002.
Collins, A., Brown, J. S. & Holum, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible. American Educator (Winter), 6-11, 38-46.
Costa, Art and Kallick, Bena, Habits of Mind, vols. I, II, III and IV, ASCD: Alexandria VA, 2000.
Crick, R. D., Broadfoot, P. & Claxton, G. (2004). Developing an effective lifelong learning inventory: the ELLI Project. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 11:3, 247-272.
Deakin-Crick, Ruth, Patricia Broadfoot and Guy Claxton, Developing an Effective Lifelong Learning Inventory: The ELLI Project, Assessment in Education, 11(3), pp. 237-72, 2004.
Dunlap, J. C. (Ed.). (1997). Proceedings from AECT ’97: The 19th National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology. Albuquerque, NM. Retrieved November 20, 2008, from http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED409835&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED409835
Smith, J. & Spurling, A. (1999). Lifelong learning: Riding the Giger. London: Cassell.
Kahler, A. A., Morgan, B., Holmes, G. E., & Bundy, C. E. (1985). Methods in Adult Education (4th ed.). Danville, IL: The Interstate Printer & Publishers, Inc.
Overly, N. V., McQuigg, R. B., Silvernail, D. L. & Coppedge, F. L. (1980). A model for lifelong learning. Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa.
Palincsar, A. S. (1990). Providing the context for intentional learning. Remedial and Special Education, 11, p. 36-39
Palincsar, A. S. & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1, p. 117-175.
Perkins, David, Outsmarting IQ: The Emerging Science of Learnable Intelligence, Basic Books: New York, 1995.
Perkins, David, Making Learning Whole: How Seven Principles of Teaching Can Transform Education, Jossey Bass, 2009.
From IQ to IC: A dispositional view of intelligence,Ron Ritchhart Roeper Review, 1940-865X, Volume 23, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 143 – 150
Smith, J. & Spurling, A. (1999). Lifelong learning: Riding the Giger. London: Cassell.
Von Wright, J. (1992). Reflections on reflection. Learning and Instruction, 2, p. 59-68
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